Officials must balance urbanization with environmental protection
Originally published on Global Voices
Sasol Secunda Facility emissions. Image by AntimatterMachine from Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 4.0 Deed).
By Grace Kobare
African cities are growing rapidly, with over 65 percent of the continent's population expected to live in urban areas by 2060. However, while increased urbanization can create many economic and social benefits, it also comes with downsides. For instance, a recent report by Greenpeace revealed that South Africa is among the top air polluters on the continent.
Air pollution occurs when harmful pollutants are released into the air, posing serious risks to both human health and the environment. It remains a top global environmental health concern, particularly in densely populated urban areas. In South Africa, air pollution is the second largest health risk, responsible for 25,800 early deaths in 2019. Urban air pollution harms individual health, and places additional strain on South Africa's already overburdened healthcare system, reducing productivity while also discouraging tourism and foreign investment.
Ranked as the 12th-largest emitter of greenhouse gases globally, South Africa's emission crisis is primarily driven by its energy sector. The country hosts six of the world’s 10 largest nitrogen dioxide emission hotspots and nine of Africa’s 10 largest nitrogen dioxide point sources.
South Africa is also home to two of the world’s largest sulfur dioxide emission hotspots and four significant sulfur dioxide point sources. In the southern African region, emissions of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds (such as industrial solvents) are predominantly linked to the energy sector. Meanwhile, residential fuel combustion for heating and cooking is the primary contributor to black carbon emissions, also known as soot, which can cause immediate health impacts.
Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, produced from the high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels, are major pollutants with well-documented public health risks. Prolonged or acute exposure to these gases poses serious health concerns. Nitrogen dioxide has been linked to long-term asthma risks and the exacerbation of respiratory conditions, while sulfur dioxide is primarily associated with asthma-related hospital admissions.
In low- and middle-income countries, approximately 85 percent of particulate matter originates from biomass combustion. This is particularly relevant in South Africa, where about 70 percent of low-income households depend on polluting fuels, such as wood, paraffin, and coal, for domestic energy needs like cooking and space heating. This reliance contributes significantly to household air pollution (HAP).
HAP increases the risk of stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer, with women and children being most vulnerable due to prolonged indoor exposure. Specific fuels determine health outcomes; biomass smoke is linked to chronic bronchitis and COPD, while coal smoke elevates lung cancer risk. Even paraffin, considered cleaner, impairs lung function and worsens asthma. In South Africa, HAP remains a critical public health issue.
Additionally, transportation is another major contributor to pollution in South Africa, with over five million cars on the roads in Johannesburg alone, each releasing harmful gases into the air. Many vehicles rely on outdated technologies, and refueling systems are often not modernized. Also, heavy dependence on personal vehicles, along with significant use of buses and trucks, results in high levels of traffic-related emissions.
As reported by the Daily Maverick, another key source of air pollution is industrial hubs near urban centers, such as the Mpumalanga Highveld and the Vaal Triangle, which are major sources of pollutants like PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide due to coal mining and coal-fired power stations. In 2022, the South African High Court ruled that the poor air quality in the Highveld Priority Area (HPA) violates citizens’ constitutional right to an environment that is safe for their health and well-being.
The country's growing energy demands, industrial activities, and transportation needs driven by urban growth make rapid urbanization a significant contributor to increasing air pollution in South Africa. Johannesburg, for example, is on track to become a megacity by 2030. Its rapid expansion intensifies emissions from sectors like electricity generation, which heavily relies on fossil fuels, as well as the transport and metals industries. These activities release harmful pollutants such as particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrous oxides, and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which exceed World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for safe air quality.
According to a 2015 research conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP,) South Africa has Minimum Emissions Standards (MES) for industries, but enforcement is inconsistent, and air quality monitoring is unevenly distributed. Approximately 40 percent of the population lacks access to air quality monitoring within a 25 kilometer (15.53 mile) radius, hindering effective evidence-based interventions.
Potential solutions to South Africa’s air pollution problem include expanding renewable energy sources and reducing reliance on coal, which could significantly improve air quality. Enhancing public transport infrastructure to reduce the number of vehicles on the road, implementing green building standards, and creating urban green spaces can help mitigate pollution and its effects. Additionally, strengthening regulations under the Air Quality Act of 2004 and promoting cleaner industrial practices are crucial for achieving long-term improvements.
South African officials are working with organizations like the Clean Air Fund and UNEP through campaigns, policy recommendations, and partnerships with local governments and communities. These collaborations aim to address systemic challenges and promote sustainable urban growth.
For example, in 2023, the Clean Air Fund began its air pollution initiatives in South Africa, building on its broader work across African cities in partnership with C40 Cities. As noted in this report, Johannesburg joined the Breathe Cities initiative, receiving technical support, capacity building, and community engagement to implement clean air measures that could save 2,800 lives and USD 640 million (ZAR 12 billion) by 2040.
In Cape Town, the UrbanBetter Citizens for Clean Air Campaign empowered young runners to collect air quality data and advocate for clean air policies. Additionally, a collaboration with Climate Visuals produced a free photo collection spotlighting communities most affected by air pollution in Johannesburg and the Highveld. By engaging local leaders, community groups, and academic institutions, Clean Fund aims to advance sustainable, locally-led solutions and address the widespread impact of air pollution across South Africa.
Air pollution in South African cities highlights the urgent need for coordinated efforts in policy reform, public awareness, and sustainable urban development to balance rapid urbanization with environmental protection. Addressing this challenge requires collective action from policymakers, businesses, and citizens to tackle root causes, support regulatory measures, and implement solutions like cleaner energy and better urban planning. By coming together to demand change and take concrete steps, South Africa has a vital opportunity to curb air pollution and safeguard public health and the environment.
