1. Introduction 1.1. Literature ReviewThe development of internal combustion engines (ICEs) spans several centuries and has significantly influenced modern society by broadening transportation and mechanization horizons. Despite their benefits, ICEs are associated with substantial gas and particle emissions, prompting ongoing research into innovative technologies and strategies to mitigate these effects. Fuel injectors are critical in this context, impacting engine efficiency and emissions [1,2].In diesel engines, particularly within the common-rail (CR) fuel injection system, critical parameters such as injection timing, injection, and duration are controlled to enhance efficiency and minimize emissions [3]. Extensive research indicates that delayed injection timing is effective in reducing NOx emissions by lowering peak combustion temperatures and pressures within the cylinder [4,5,6,7]. Increasing injection pressure improves fuel atomization, which facilitates a more uniform fuel–ai...
