The evidence collected in the research supports the relevance of three types of informal governance practices.Nicknamed“the 3C’s”, theyare associated with high levels of corruption.Co-optationThis informal pattern refers to situations where groups or individuals are recruited into a larger group or network, often involving some kind of reward accruing to the recruitee, with the goal of advancing the interests of the recruiting faction.Among political actors, co-optation is often associated with strategic appointments to public office of allies and potential adversaries, who are granted impunity in exploiting the power and resources associated with public office in exchange for mobilising support and maintaining loyalty to the regime. In turn, political actors may also be recruited by influential business interests, who may offer generous campaign donations in exchange for ensuring access to large government contracts.Co-optation also happens from the bottom-up, when political leaders a...
