JSTOR Daily isn’t new to the biofuel conversation. Many contributors have written optimistically about the contributions of the biofuel industry to sustainable aviation, bringing back prairie landscapes, and even finding a new use for massive seaweed deposits. Biofuels made from corn, wheat, soy, rapeseed oil, palm oil, woody biomass—even algae—have been positioned as key transitional fuels on the pathway to net zero carbon emissions and to energy sovereignty. While this feels intrinsically environmentally positive, biofuels can also have serious implications for environmental justice and land-use competition, affecting food security, sustainable infrastructure, and land-based carbon sinks. Are there ways we can promote the growth of biofuels in ways that align with principles of environmental justice and a regenerative economy?
Scholars Jörn P. W. Scharlemann and William F. Laurance paint a complex picture of the ecological impact of biofuels as an answer, writing that “not all biofuels are beneficial when their full environmental impacts are assessed, [and] some of the most important, such as those produced from corn, sugarcane, and soy, perform poorly in many contexts.” Referencing the findings of Rainer Zah, Mireille Faust, Jürgen Reinhard, and Daniel Birchmeier, who studied the lifecycle impacts of 26 biofuels, Scharlemann and Laurance write that nearly half (twelve of twenty-six) of biofuels assessed, including corn ethanol, have greater aggregate environmental costs than fossil fuels. These costs manifest in various forms, from the extensive use of nitrogen fertilizers, which emit nitrous oxide—a potent greenhouse gas that depletes stratospheric ozone—to the vast swaths of farmland and native habitats converted into biofuel production sites.
Economist Daniela Russi underscores the fact that the low yield of biofuels crops typically necessitates large-scale monocultures, which often require substantial inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial machinery. This intensive agricultural model not only leads to significant trace-gas emissions but also creates land-use competition, depleting biodiversity, ecosystem health, hydrological function, and soil organic carbon, write Scharlemann and Laurance. Large-scale production of biofuels has been estimated to require enormous land and labor investments to make even a small dent in fossil fuel use, undermining the very sustainability biofuels aim to achieve. In addition, greenhouse gasses are emitted throughout the biofuel supply chain, as oil and gas are utilized to transport the raw material to biofuel processing plants to final end users.
The impact of biofuel production extends beyond environmental concerns, however, affecting land stewardship and issues of justice, particularly in postcolonial states. As energy farming expands, it often encroaches on agricultural lands traditionally used for food crops and subsistence farming, affecting vulnerable populations who depend on staples such as corn, wheat, and sugar for daily sustenance. Biofuels compete with resources for food production, creating a phenomenon Russi names as “ethanolinflation,” or the driving up of prices of food staples, rendering them unaffordable.
Biofuel agriculture also formalizes land tenure where land relationships have been more fluid and ancestral. As Laura German, George C. Schoneveld, and Pable Pacheco found across case studies of biofuel production in Malaysia, Ghana, and Indonesia, land conflicts ensued over the distribution of service payments to those who held documented ownership versus those who utilized the land in customary ways. At most sites, customary land stewards were not informed prior nor consulted prior to agreement finalization and land clearing.
To reconcile the benefits of biofuels with their environmental and socio-economic costs, a shift towards more sustainable and equitable models is imperative. Joyce Tait, chair of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Working Party on Biofuels, argues ethics in the biofuel industry need strengthening; biofuel development should not come at the expense of essential human rights, including access to food, water, and land. Ethical approaches to biofuel production should go far beyond the mathematics of which crops can grow the tallest and the fastest. The industry should prioritize biofuels that don’t compete with food production, such as those derived from algae or agricultural residues, and develop small-scale, niche productions that minimize resource inputs, as described by German, Schoneveld, and Pacheco. These smallholder operations also enhance local benefits and foster more inclusive economic growth. Policymakers must also ensure that equitable trade practices and fair compensation for labor and intellectual property rights are at the center of the biofuel industry, ensuring that the benefits of biofuel development are distributed justly.
While biofuels present a promising alternative to fossil fuels, their implementation must be managed to avoid exacerbating issues of environmental injustice. By adopting a holistic approach that balances ecological, economic, and social considerations, we can harness the potential of biofuels to contribute to a more sustainable and equitable energy future.
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